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Annotated Bibliography

The following is an annotated bibliography of literature compiled by the IRIS Project that relate to increasing the quantity and quality of interpreters working and living in rural settings.

Community Interpreting

• Ask and Ye Shall Not Receive: Interpreter-Related Access Barriers Reported by Deaf Users of American Sign Language

  Title:

  Author & Year: E. Schniedewind, R. Lindsay, & S. Snow, 2020

  Source & DOI: Disability and Health Journal; 10.1016/j.dhjo.2020.100932

  Abstract by the IRIS Project:

  BACKGROUND - Healthcare providers are mandated to provide reasonable accommodations for Deaf users of American Sign Language (ASL) accessing healthcare services, including ASL interpreters. Provision of accommodations improves access and provider/patient communication.
  
  OBJECTIVE - Describe the types, frequency, severity, and trends in healthcare access complications experienced by Deaf patients.
  
  METHODS - A six-year retrospective review of complaints (n = 108) filed regarding interpreter provision in healthcare settings with the Idaho Council for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing by Deaf users of ASL was conducted and summarized. An analysis of demographic and language factors associated with interpreter-related barriers and whether the complaint was resolved was performed using multivariate logistic regression.
  
  RESULTS - Reasons for complaints of interpreter-related barriers to care included: 48.2% were "told an interpreter was not available"; 28.7% received an unqualified interpreter; interpreter was promised but not provided (18.5%). Factors independently associated with having been promised an interpreter were: medical clinics (vs. dental) (OR 3.92 95%CI 1.18-12.98), and complaints filed later in the study period (OR 1.55 per year 95%CI 1.19-2.01). For each additional year during the study period, complaints were 1.6 times (95%CI 1.15-2.22) more likely to have an interpreter promised but not provided. Patients from rural areas were less likely to have their complaints satisfactorily resolved (OR 0.18 95%CI 0.06-0.55).
  
  CONCLUSION - Deaf patients experience various interpreter-related barriers throughout the process of accessing healthcare and communicating with providers/staff, though further regional and nationwide documentation is warranted.

• Communicative Equality: Needs Assessment of Sign Language Interpreters in South Dakota

  Title:

  Author & Year: C. Fisher, 2018

  Source: Master’s thesis, Western Oregon University

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: Data compiled for this research will be used as a pilot study to support further research needed to consider an interpreter education program in West River region of South Dakota. Surveys were distributed to businesses, individuals in the Deaf community, and interpreters who are registered in the state of South Dakota. Face-to- face interviews were scheduled with two owners of two interpreting agencies that schedule interpreter requests throughout South Dakota. Data collection hinted at the need for qualified interpreters in the state, with a more enhanced focus on the western region of the state. Survey results suggest that interpreters are needed; however, flaws occurred during the study, creating recommendations for further research to offer clarity and more detailed conclusions.

  The participants who responded to the interpreter surveys offered information on their educational backgrounds and ideas on what they wish had been part of their own interpreter education training. Interviews supported information gathered in surveys, offering their perspectives of the need for interpreters. With research compiled and data analyzed, data suggests a possible need for interpreters, a suggestion for further studies to develop a fuller understanding of the concept of a qualified interpreter, and how their quality is measured is applied in the recommendations. In addition, future studies are suggested that may lead to a more comprehensive proposal for an interpreter education program in the West River region of South Dakota.

• Engaging in a Rural Deaf Community of Practice (with an ASL Summary)

  ASL Summary by the IRIS Project:

  Title:  

  Author & Year: K. Gournaris, 2019

  Source & DOI: Dissertation Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) in Educational Leadership: Curriculum and Instruction; 10.15760/etd.6993

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: The number of students taking American Sign Language (ASL) at the post-secondary level continues to increase as more Deaf-related graduate programs and employment settings require fluent ASL skills. Western Oregon University (WOU) is one of the few existing programs in the United States that offers four years of ASL instruction; however, as a rural university it has limited access to a Deaf community. The problem of practice is that students often have little exposure to rich language models who are fluent in ASL, which impacts their legitimate peripheral participation (LPP) in the local Deaf communities of practice (CoPs) and reduces apprenticeship opportunities that might be beneficial for their language acquisition experiences. While research suggests that direct engagement with language models has a significant impact on language acquisition and fluency in general, there is scant literature in the field of ASL that addresses this connection. Gournaris' dissertation research addressed this gap in the literature. To address the problem of practice, Gournaris used a qualitative research design with both descriptive and comparative research questions to complete three case studies. Using semi-structured interviews, this study explored participants' attitudes and beliefs about their experience in local Deaf CoPs. The three participants in the study were Western Oregon University students enrolled in ASL 8 course. Data analysis included inductive analysis of qualitative data, a within case analysis, and a cross-case analysis. Findings showed that participants were interested in moving past LPP in local Deaf CoPs, and were interested in identifying apprenticeship opportunities because they realized the importance of engaging with native language models.

• Interpreting Skills Acquired at a Distance: Results of a Data-Driven Study

  Title: Interpreting Skills Acquired at a Distance: Results of a Data-Driven Study

  Author & Year: L. Johnson & A. Witter-Merithew, 2004

  Source: Journal of Interpretation

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: The use of distance technologies to deliver academic programs related to Sign Language Interpreting is a relatively new phenomenon. Questions exist as to whether or not interpreting skills coursework can effectively be delivered through distance technologies and whether improvement in interpreting skills acquired at a distance are quantifiable. The purpose of this paper is to offer a description of skills development coursework offered at a distance, followed by an analysis and discussion of pre/post performance assessment data collected from a cohort of students completing the Educational Interpreting Certificate Program in July 2003. The performance assessment data collected represents the results achieved by 50 students participating in a 10-state and Bureau of Indian Affairs supported regional cohort (Cohort 2). The pre/post assessment tool used was the Educational Interpreter Performance Assessment. Analysis of the performance assessment data from this cohort indicates an increase in interpreting competence. The ultimate goal of this paper is to demonstrate that the use of technology offers promise for expanding access to quality interpreter education, particularly for individuals living in rural areas of the United States, or individuals desiring the convenience and accessibility offered by distance education opportunities.

• The Rural Interpreter: Perspectives on Professional Development and Professional Partnerships (with an ASL Summary)

  ASL Summary by the IRIS Project:

  Title:

  Author & Year: E. Trimble, 2014

  Source: Master’s thesis, Western Oregon University

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: There currently exists a limited body of knowledge on rural interpreters. What little research has been done has looked at rural interpreters based in educational settings. This study is an opening look at interpreters who maintain a community based practice in a rural county, and is an initial appraisal of the professional development needs of rural interpreters. Trimble examines if current trainings are designed with rural interpreters in mind, and if rural interpreters are able to acquire new skills, techniques, and knowledge that are applicable to their communities. This study sought to answer the question: How can the implementation of a structured interprofessional learning community aid the professional development of a rural sign language interpreter?

• Use of American Sign Language in Telepsychiatry Consultation

  Title:

  Authors & Year: A. López, M. Cruz, S. Lazarus, P. Webster, E. Jones, & R. Weinstein, 2004

  Source & DOI: Telemedicine Journal and e-Health, 10.1089/TMJ.2004.10.389

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: The aim of this study was to provide a psychiatric consultation to a deaf patient in a rural community via telemedicine. The patient successfully communicated with the telepsychiatrist via an American Sign Language (ASL) interpreter and her psychiatric symptoms improved. This case study demonstrated the feasibility of delivering specialty medical services to a special needs population via telemedicine.

• Utah Deaf Videoconferencing Model: Providing Vocational Services Via Technology

  Title:

  Authors & Year: L. Johnson, 2004

  Source: Journal of Rehabilitation

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: Rural areas often face limited services when working with clients who are Deaf and hard of hearing. Some of these limitations may include a lack of interpreters, lack of social resources, and a lack of cultural, language, and legal understanding on the part of the service provider. These limitations are addressed and possible answers are explored through the use of the Utah Deaf Videoconferencing Model. Through the use of modern videoconferencing technology, Utah has begun to find some answers that may prove helpful to the client, practitioner, educator, rehabilitation counselor, administrator, and policy maker, when approaching and dealing with clients who are Deaf. The importance of using technology in this arena is captured in this statement from The U.S. Department of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, "For people without disabilities, technology makes things convenient, whereas for people with disabilities, it makes things possible" (Heumann, 2000).

  There has been much written about the use of technology to enhance services to clients in the general or "hearing" population. Professionals in business, education, vocational rehabilitation, medicine, government, defense, and social work to name a few have explored and used technology to serve remote or distance needs (e.g., Augustine, et. al. 1998; Cain, et. al., 200l; Frase-Blunt, 1998; Lee, et. al. 2000; Patterson, 2000). Use of technology in these environments may range from simple e-mail exchanges, internet support groups in rehabilitation, and desk top camera interactions to more complicated uses such as the space program sending and receiving messages and images outside of our earth's atmosphere (e.g., see Patterson, 2000; South Carolina Department of Mental Health, 2002). Some of the uses of distance technology that the Utah Model takes advantage of include: tele health, tele medicine, and tele education. Tele medicine is described as "the use of electronic communications and information technology or support clinical care at a distance" (Tellda, 2002). Tele health is, "the use of telecommunications and information technology to provide access to health assessment, diagnosis, intervention, consultation, education and information across distance (Tellda, 2002). Mental health counseling falls under the tele health umbrella of care (Lamarche, 2002). Petracchi defines defines distance education as "all types of formal instruction conducted when teachers and students are located a geographic distance from one another" (2000). Studies of technology being used by the Deaf population seem to have followed the patterns of the general or "hearing" population (e.g., see, Harkins, 2002; South Carolina Department of Mental Health, 2002). The Deaf population has used some unique applications in technology that are not used by the hearing population. These include technology such as video relay phone service (VRS), a pilot program in Minnesota using video remote interpreters to facilitate State Department of Workforce Services interactions with Deaf clients, and distance education including specialized online instruction for students who are Deaf (e.g., Harkins, 2002; Latz, et. al., 2002; Mallory & Rizzo, 2002, Rabelo & Carnahan, 2002). Another unique application of videoconferencing technology in the field of deafness is in South Carolina. Deaf telepsychiatry has been in existence since approximately 1994 in South Carolina. The program was innovated as the one sign language proficient psychiatrist in the state became confined to her home due to a pregnancy. She was unable to continue to drive long miles across the rural parts of the state to provide psychiatry services to the identified 300 clients who are Deaf and mentally ill. The state established a videoconferencing network from the psychiatrist's home to several sites in the state and she continued her practice from her home. The application has been so successful in South Carolina that the psychiatrist "now reports seeing three times the previous number of clients in only sixty percent of the time.

K-12 Interpreting

• An Exploration of the Experiences of Educational Interpreters in Missouri

  Title:

  Authors & Year: P. Belt, 2020

  Source: Master of Arts in Interpreting Studies and Communication Equity

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: With the increasing number of deaf or hard of hearing students being educated in their home district since the passage of PL 94-142, the state of Missouri has established several policies regarding the qualifications of interpreters working in the K-12 setting. Missouri has also had a few initiatives to provide training to interpreters working in the educational setting. Since the 1990’s, there has been little research into the interpreters’ experiences in Missouri and the challenges they face. The results of this research can provide stakeholders with data that may be used to influence future program and policy decisions. The data provides information on the approximate number of interpreters working in the K-12 setting in Missouri, what certification and educational backgrounds they possess, and what education/training they are interested in pursuing and how they would like to receive it.

• Educational Interpreters: Certified or Uncertified?

  Title:

  Authors & Year: M. Hitch, 2005

  Source: The Journal of Law of Education

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: The Americans with Disabilities Act requires that a qualified interpreter be provided if necessary as an aid to deaf or hard of hearing child. Hitch presents the obstacles to consider in hiring an educational interpreter and discusses interpreter certification as required by the law.

• Educational Interpreting: Understanding the Rural Experience

  Title:

  Authors & Year: C.C. Yarger, 2001

  Source & DOI: American Annals of the Deaf, 10.1353/aad.2012.0074

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: The study examined the experiences, preparation, and perceptions of 63 educational interpreters employed in two rural states, using surveys and subsequent in-depth interviews with selected subjects. Only 10 of the 63 interpreters had completed interpreter preparation programs, with 5 of these having no course work related to education. None of the interpreters working in elementary or secondary schools held certification from the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf or any other certifying body. Of the 63 interpreters, 43 were assessed using the Educational Interpreter Performance Assessment (EIPA), which uses a scale of 0-5. Test takers who score 3.5 or better are considered "coherent." The mean score on the EIPA for the 43 educational interpreters was 2.6. Respondents reported concerns about their limited understanding of American Sign Language (ASL), their ability to interpret from ASL to English, and their salaries, training, and professional status.

• Effective In-Service for Rural and Remote Educational Interpreters

  Title: Effective In-Service for Rural and Remote Educational Interpreters

  Authors & Year: Proceedings, 1998

  Source & DOI: Rural Special Education Quarterly, 10.1177/875687051303200404

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: In spite of the increase of interpreter education programs nationwide, there continues to be a shortage of qualified educational interpreters throughout the country. The lack of these specialists is most dramatic in rural and remote areas and appears to be related to the following:
  

  1. the lack of regularly offered, high quality sign language classes to ensure that individuals acquire the necessary language proficiency to be eligible for interpreter education;
  2. the absence of a local, pre-service, interpreter education program; and
  3. the lack of a designated lead interpreter assigned and prepared to provide mentoring, on-going evaluation, and support.
     

  Thus, rural and remote area educational interpreters are often hired with little, if any, pre-service training.
  
  In light of these needs, the Summer Interpreter Education Program (SIEP) was developed and implemented at Western Oregon University. This presentation will describe the SIEP, which is a model for the delivery of educational interpreter education that has been effective in increasing the number of qualified classroom interpreters in areas of sparse population in the Northwest.
  
  The SIEP has several program objectives, the first of which seeks to increase the number of individuals in rural and remote areas whose level of basic sign communication is sufficient to qual* them for participation in interpreter education, either in-service or pre-service. To accomplish this, the STEP offers advanced training in American Sign Language (ASL) pedagogy for currently employed ASL educators. In areas where sign language is not currently taught, individuals are recruited, primarily from the local deaf community, to participate in sign language teacher education.
  
  The second SIEP objective is to offer continuing education opportunities for beginning-level interpreters who wish to continue their development toward becoming fully qualified interpreters. Recruitment and publicity strategies focus on rural and remote participants. Summer classes are conducted in two three-week modules, allowing students to attend for up to six weeks each summer.
  
  The third program objective is to prepare lead interpreters to become interpreter resource specialists and mentors. These participants are trained to offer individualized evaluation, training, and support to staff interpreters in their respective school districts throughout the school year.
  
  In addition to offering the above three educational components, strategies for the delivery of instruction to rural and remote locations, utilizing existing distance learning technology, have been investigated and implemented successfully.
  
  In this presentation, the Summer Interpreter Education Program objectives and their implementation will be described. Their application and relevance to areas other than the Northwest will also be discussed.

• Technology to Support Sign Language for Students with Disabilities

  Title:

  Authors & Year: V. Donne, 2017

  Source & DOI: Rural Special Education Quarterly, 10.1177/875687051303200404

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: This systematic review of the literature provides a synthesis of research on the use of technology to support sign language. Background research on the use of sign language with students who are deaf/hard of hearing and students with low incidence disabilities, such as autism, intellectual disability, or communication disorders is provided. The practice of utilizing technology incorporating sign language to promote language development, reading comprehension, and writing in sign language users is examined. Also, use of technology to learn sign language is investigated. In addition, the implications for rural educators are discussed. Based on the review, a resource of technology applications is provided for parents, interpreters, and teachers to implement at home or in the rural classroom.

• The Perceptions of Educational Interpreters in Two Predominantly Rural Western States Regarding Their Training and Support Needs

  Title:

  Authors & Year: C.C. Yarger, 1997

  Source: Doctoral Dissertation, University of Northern Colorado

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: The purpose of this study was to examine demographic and descriptive characteristics of educational interpreters, perceptions of their jobs, and recommendations for improving their effectiveness in working with students who are deaf in two predominantly rural western states. Questionnaires were sent to the total population of educational interpreters in the two states. Sixty three of the respondents who completed and returned the surveys were eligible for inclusion in the study. Eight interpreters, who indicated an interest, were selected for interviews based on the precepts of maximum variation sampling. From the quantitative and qualitative data, recommendations were developed for increasing educational interpreters’ access to resources, potentially increasing accessibility for students who are deaf attending school in general education settings.

• Unregulated Autonomy: Uncredentialed Educational Interpreters in Rural Schools

  Title:

  Authors & Year: S. Fitzmuarice, 2017

  Source & DOI: American Annals of the Deaf; 10.1353/aad.2017.0024

  Abstract by the IRIS Project: Although many rural Deaf and Hard of Hearing students attend public schools most of the day and use the services of educational interpreters to gain access to the school environment, little information exists on what interpreters are doing in rural school systems in the absence of credentialing requirements. The researcher used ethnographic interviews and field observations of three educational interpreters with no certification or professional assessment to explore how uncredentialed interpreters were enacting their role in a rural high school. The findings indicate that uncredentialed interpreters in rural settings perform four major functions during their school day: preparing the environment, staff, and materials; interpreting a variety of content; interacting with numerous stakeholders; and directly instructing Deaf and Hard of Hearing students. Generally, educational interpreters in rural districts operate with unregulated autonomy, a situation that warrants further research and a national standard for all educational interpreters.

Rural Deaf Community

• Serving Deaf Individuals in Rural Communities

  Title:

  Authors & Year: National Deaf Center on Postsecondary Outcomes, 2019

  Source: Research Summary, National Deaf Center on Postsecondary Outcomes